Spontaneous combustion of coal poses a persistent and severe hazard in underground and opencast mining operations worldwide, with Indian coalfields being particularly vulnerable due to the prevalence of high-volatile bituminous and sub-bituminous coals of Gondwana origin. This comprehensive review synthesizes the mechanisms of spontaneous heating, intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing susceptibility, laboratory assessment techniques, and protective measures, drawing from extensive studies on coals collected from major Indian coalfields including MCL, BCCL, SCCL, SECL, WCL, and NECL.

Key findings reveal that higher moisture content and volatile matter significantly enhance oxidation propensity, whereas elevated ash content acts as a natural inhibitor by serving as a heat sink and physical barrier. Established laboratory methods such as proximate analysis, Crossing Point Temperature (CPT), Flammability Temperature, Wet Oxidation Potential (WOP), and Mahadevan’s Liability Index provide reliable and reproducible indicators of spontaneous heating liability. The review critically evaluates conventional and advanced protective strategies, including stockpile management, inertisation techniques using nitrogen and CO₂, chemical inhibitors (sodium nitrate, calcium/magnesium chloride, phosphates), and emerging sealing technologies such as gel foams, biomass-derived hydrogels, and three-phase foams.

Special emphasis is placed on integrated approaches that combine real-time gas and temperature monitoring, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and multiphysics modeling, and site-specific interventions to effectively control the oxidation zone in goaf areas. Challenges in dynamic long-term goaf environments and the need for customized solutions tailored to Indian geological conditions are also highlighted.

This synthesis offers valuable insights for improved risk assessment, proactive fire prevention, and sustainable coal mining practices in India and other regions with similar coal characteristics.